10.2190/2Q4X-8H19-8BG3-95P3 2Q4X8H198BG395P3 3 Community Energy Conservation: A Review 307 326 20020509 20020509 20020509 20020509 2Q4X8H198BG395P3.pdf http://baywood.metapress.com/link.asp?target=contribution&id=2Q4X8H198BG395P3 4 Michael J. Marshall Stuart Oskamp Claremont Graduate School, Claremont, California The research literature relevant to energy conservation at the community level is examined. Although conservation at this level has a high potential for energy savings, relatively few communities have been successful at implementing community-wide conservation programs. Some major social psychological principles that are associated with the successful implementation of community-wide energy conservation are examined. Conditions conducive to community conservation are: 1) the perception of a major imminent environmental threat; 2) conservation programs designed to be consistent with community values; 3) receptive political leaders; 4) community participation; and 5) the availability of resources. Two general frameworks for community energy conservation efforts have been proposed. The Comprehensive Community Energy Management Program was field-tested and major findings are reported. The second, the Energy Conserving Community Plan, is a conceptual framework based upon the history of successful antilitter campaigns. Although there are major methodological problems to contend with in evaluating community energy conservation programs, certain preliminary public policy recommendations are derived from the available literature and enumerated.

T. Tomasi, Local Energy Initiatives: A Second Look, A Survey of Cities and Counties, California, 1981, Office of Appropriate Technology, State of California, 1981.

H. Lee, The Role of Local Governments in Prompting Energy Efficiency, Annual Review of Energy, pp. 309-337, 1981.

F. Graves, Fort Collins — Light Years Ahead in Saving Energy, Common Cause, 7, p. 25, 1981.

J. Hamrin, Low-Energy Consuming Communities: Implications for Public Policy, Dissertation Abstracts International, University Microfilms No. 7815502 02550, 1978.

L. Coch and J. French, Overcoming Resistance to Change, Human Relations, 1, pp. 512-532, 1948.

K. Lewin, Group Decisions and Social Change, in Readings in Social Psychology, T. H. Newcomb and E. L. Hartley (eds.), Holt, New York, 1947.

W. G. Scott and T. R. Mitchell, Organizational Theory: A Structural and Behavioral Analysis, Irwin, Homewood, Illinois, 1976.

T. Rohlen, For Harmony and Strength, University of California Press, Berkeley, California, 1974.

E. Blakely and H. Schutz, Energy, Community, and Quality of Life in California: A Survey of Urban, Suburban, and Rural Communities, The Journal of Energy and Development, pp. 224-238, 1977.

J. W. Brehm, Responses to Loss of Freedom: A Theory of Psychological Reactance, General Learning Press, Morristown, New Jersey, 1972.

P. C. Stern and G. T. Gardner, Psychological Research and Energy Policy, American Psychologist, 36, pp. 329-342, 1981.

A. B. Lovins, Energy Strategy: The Road Not Taken?, Foreign Affairs, 55, pp. 65-96, 1976.

O. S. Scheffler, S. I. Schwartz, and T. J. Tordiff, Energy Conservation Attitudes and Behavior in Small Cities: Davis and Woodland, California, Environmental Quality Series No. 31, Institute of Governmental Affairs and Institute of Ecology, University of California, Davis, California, June 1979.

W. M. Bridgeland and A. J. Sofranko, Community Structure and Issue-Specific Influences on Community Mobilization and Environmental Quality, Urban Affairs Quarterly, 11, pp. 186-215, 1975.

M. Lipsey, The Personal Antecedents and Consequences of Ecologically Responsible Behavior: A Review, Journal Supplement Abstract Service, 7, Whole #1521, 1977.

S. W. Agras, R. G. Jacob, and M. Lebedeck, The California Drought: A Quasi-Experimental Analysis of Social Policy, Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 13, pp. 561-570, 1980.

A. W. Wicker, Attitudes Versus Actions: The Relationship of Verbal and Overt Behavioral Responses to Attitude Objects, Journal of Social Issues, 25, pp. 41-78, 1969.

R. Anderson and M. Lipsey, Energy Conservation and Attitudes Toward Technology, Public Opinion Quarterly, 42, pp. 17-30, 1978.

J. W. Hass and G. S. Bagley, Coping with the Energy Crisis: Effects of Fear Appeals upon Attitudes Toward Energy Consumption, Journal of Applied Psychology, 60, pp. 754-756, 1975.

D. O. Sears, T. R. Tyler, J. Citrin, and D. R. Kinder, Political System Support and Public Response to the Energy Crisis, American Journal of Political Science, 22, pp. 57-82, 1978.

D. Kahneman and A. Tversky, Prospect Theory: An Analysis of Decision under Risk, Econometrica, 47, pp. 263-291, 1979.

P. Beck, S. I. Doctors, and P. Y. Hammond, Individual Energy Conservation Behaviors, Oelgeschlager, Gunn and Hain, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1980.

D. I. Warren and D. L. Clifford, Local Neighborhood Social Structure and Response to the Energy Crisis of 1973-1974, University of Michigan, Institute of Labor and Industrial Relations, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1975.

J. Ridgeway, Energy Efficient Community Planning, The JG Press, Inc./The Elements, Box 351, Emmaus, Pennsylvania 18049, 1980.

P. Canan and M. Hennessy, Community Values as the Context for Interpreting Social Impacts, Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 3, pp. 351-365, 1982.

R. A. Winett, Disseminating a Behavioral Approach to Energy Conservation, Professional Psychology, 7, pp. 222-228, 1976.

M. J. Marshall, The Psychologist's Role in the Ventura County Energy Conservation Project, paper presented at Western Psychological Association meeting, San Francisco, California, April 1983.

R. Stobaugh and D. Yergin (eds.), Energy Future: Report of the Energy Project at the Harvard Business School, Random House, New York, 1979.

R. Winett, J. Hatcher, T. R. Fort, I. Leckliter, S. Love, A. Riley, and J. Fishback, The Effects of Videotape Modeling and Daily Feedback on Residential Electricity Conservation, Home Temperature and Humidity, Perceived Comfort, and Clothing Worn: Winter and Summer, Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 15, pp. 381-402, 1982.

E. Aronson and M. O'Leary, The Relative Effectiveness of Models and Prompts on Energy Conservation: A Field Experiment in a Shower Room, Journal of Environmental Systems, 12, pp. 219-224, 1982-83.

W. B. Seaver and A. H. Patterson, Decreasing Fuel-Oil Consumption through Feedback and Social Commendation, Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 9, pp. 147-152, 1976.

R. Revelle, How Citizens Help Develop Seattle's Energy Policies, speech given by Seattle City Councilman/Energy Committee Chariman at Energy Committee Meeting, June 13, 1979.

T. M. Stewart, Report on Fitchburg Action to Conserve Energy (FACE), Fitchburg Office of the Planning Coordinator, Fitchburg, Massachusetts 01420, 1980.

L. McClelland and S. W. Cook, Energy Conservation in University Buildings, Evaluation Review, 4, pp. 119-133, 1980.

M. E. Olsen, Consumers' Attitudes Toward Energy Conservation, Journal of Social Issues, 37, pp. 108-131, 1981.

M. E. Olsen and C. Cluett, Voluntary Energy Conservation through Neighborhood Programs: Design and Evaluation, Energy Systems and Policy, 6, pp. 161-192, 1982.

S. M. Yates and E. Aronson, A Social Psychological Perspective on Energy Conservation in Residential Buildings, American Psychologist, 38, pp. 435-444, 1983.

L. Festinger, A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance, Row, Peterson, Evanston, Illinois, 1957.

J. L. Freedman and S. C. Fraser, Compliance without Pressure: The Foot-in-the-Door Technique, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 4, pp. 195-202, 1966.

J. Arbuthnot, R. Tedeschi, M. Wayner, J. Turner, S. Kressel, and R. Rush, The Introduction of Sustained Recycling Behavior through the Foot-in-the-Door Technique, Journal of Environmental Systems, 6, pp. 355-368, 1976-1977.

J. L. Moore, D. A. Berger, H. M. Griggs, and C. B. Rubin, The Comprehensive Community Energy Management Program: An Evaluation (Report No. ANL/CNSV-TM-89), Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois, 1981.

M. S. Pallak and W. Cummings, Commitment and Voluntary Energy Conservation, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 2, pp. 27-30, 1976.

G. Hardin, The Tragedy of the Commons, Science, 162, pp. 1243-1248, 1968.

P. C. Stern, When Do People Act to Maintain Common Resources? A Reformulated Psychological Question of Our Times, International Journal of Psychology, 13, pp. 149-158, 1978.

P. J. Loukissas, Community Participation in Energy Planning: The Case of the Comprehensive Energy Conservation Plan for the Borough of Hamburg, Pennsylvania, paper presented at Conference on Synergy in the Building Sciences — Urban Rehabilitation and Energy Conservation, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, November 1979.

U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region VII, Managing Growth in Small Community: Action Handbook Part II, Briscol, Marphis, Murray, and Lamart, Denver, Colorado, 1978.

J. S. Milstein, Attitudes, Knowledge and Behavior of American Consumers Regarding Energy Conservation with Some Implications for Governmental Action, Advances in Consumer Research, 6, 1977.

D. E. Morrison and D. G. Lodwick, The Social Impacts of Soft and Hard Energy Systems, Annual Review of Energy, 6, pp. 357-378, 1981.

L. J. Trigg, D. Perlman, P. G. Perry, and P. Janisse, Anti-Pollution Behavior: A Function of Perceived Outcome and Locus of Control, Environment and Behavior, 8, pp. 307-314, 1976.

A. M. Zerega, Transportation Energy Conservation Policy: Implications for Social Science Research, Journal of Social Issues; 37:2, pp. 31-50, 1981.

G. S. McGregor, Energy Conservation in Urban and Regional Planning: The Davis Experience, unpublished manuscript, 1978.

P. J. Loukissas, The University's Role in Community Energy Planning: The Hamburg, Pennsylvania, Experience, paper presented at American Planning Association Conference, Baltimore, Maryland, October 1979.

E. S. Geller, The Energy Crisis and Behavioral Science: A Conceptual Framework for Large Scale Intervention, in Rural Psychology, A. W. Childs and G. B. Melton (eds.), Plenum, New York, 1982.

E. Cose, Decentralizing Energy Decisions: The Rebirth of Community Power, Westview, Boulder, Colorado, 1983.

E. S. Geller, Evaluating Energy Conservation Programs: Is Verbal Report Enough?, Journal of Consumer Research, 8, pp. 331-335, 1981.

M. Olsen and C. Cluett, Evaluation of the Seattle City Light Neighborhood Energy Conservation Program, Seattle City Light, 1015 Third Avenue, Seattle, Washington 98104, 1979.

E. Baumgardner and D. Schultz, Local Energy Planning Handbook, Local Government Assistance Program, Conservation Division, California Energy Commission, 1111 Howe Avenue, Sacramento, California 95825, 1981.

P. Logan, Community Energy Cooperative: How to Organize, Manage and Finance Them, The Co-op Development and Assistance Project, Conference on Alternative State and Local Policies, 2000 Florida Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20009, 1982.

M. J. Meshemberg, G. A. Ettinger, N. F. Kron, and J. F. Tschang, Guidebook for Establishing a Local Energy Management Program, National Technical Information Service, U. S. Department of Commerce, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, Virginia 22161, 1982.

D. Morris, Cities, Energy and Self-Reliance, Institute for Local Self-Reliance, 1717 18th Street NW, Washington, DC 20009, 1979.

A. Okagaki and J. Benson, County Energy Plan Guidebook, Institute for Ecological Policies, 9208 Christopher Street, Fairfax, Virginia 22031, 1979.

J. Sesso and J. McBride, Community Energy Management, National Center for Appropriate Technology, U. S. Community Services Administration, 1981.