10.2190/L2NP-8AQM-FJRG-GRPV L2NP8AQMFJRGGRPV 2 Changing Commuter Travel Behavior: Employer-Initiated Strategies 373 393 20020509 20020509 20020509 20020509 L2NP8AQMFJRGGRPV.pdf http://baywood.metapress.com/link.asp?target=contribution&id=L2NP8AQMFJRGGRPV 4 Anne R. Kearney Raymond De Young The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor Commuter travel has certain features that make it potentially more responsive to interventions than other types of travel. However, from the perspective of the employer attempting to implement a trip reduction program, it is often difficult to determine what type of intervention (or combination of interventions) would be most effective. This article reviews the literature on strategies for changing commuter behavior, with a focus on techniques that an employer might use (i.e., rather than a focus on physical or regulatory barriers to non-conserving behavior). Behavior change strategies are organized into three categories: informational approaches, positive motivational approaches, and coercive approaches. In general, research in commuter behavior change has focused on the application of external, tangible motivation (e.g., financial incentives or disincentives) to the exclusion of self-initiated, less tangible factors (e.g., commitment and self-monitoring techniques). the implications of this bias are discussed along with suggestions for future research.

U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Ridesharing: Meeting the Challenges of the '80s, in Urban Transportation Perspectives and Prospects, H. S. Levinson and R. A. Weant (eds.), Eno Foundation for Transportation, Inc., Connecticut, pp. 194-202, 1982.

L. E. Keefer, Environmental Concerns Affecting Future Urban Transportation, in Urban Transportation Perspectives and Prospects, H. S. Levinson and R. A. Weant (eds.), Eno Foundation for Transportation, Inc., Connecticut, pp. 71-80, 1982.

EPA, Transportation Control Measure Information Documents, Office of Mobile Sources, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1991.

M. Malaspina, K. Schafer, and R. Wiles, What Works: Air Pollution Solutions, Report No. 1, the Environmental Exchange, Washington, D. C., 1992.

E. N. Schreffler and J. R. Kuzmyak, Trip Reduction Effectiveness of Employer-Based Transportation Control Measures: A Review of Empirical Findings and Analytical Tools, paper presented at the 84th Annual Meeting and Exhibition of the Air and Water Management Association, Vancouver, British Columbia, June 1991.

U. S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Evaluation of Travel Demand Management Measures to Relieve Congestion, Report No. FHWA-SA-90-005, 1990.

J. M. Brunso and D. T. Hartgen, Can Employer-Based Carpool Coordinators Increase Ridesharing? Transportation Research Records, 823, pp. 45-50, 1981.

R. De Young, Changing Behavior and Making it Stick: The Conceptualization and Management of Conservation Behavior, Environment and Behavior, 25, pp. 485-505, 1993.

S. W. Cook and J. L. Berrenberg, Approaches to Encouraging Conservation Behavior: A Review and Conceptual Framework, Journal of Social Issues, 37, pp. 73-107, 1981.

W. O. Dwyer, F. C. Leeming, M. K. Cobern, B. E. Porter, and J. M. Jackson, Critical Review of Behavioral Interventions to Preserve the Environment: Research since 1980, Environment and Behavior, 25, pp. 275-321, 1993.

E. S. Geller, L. D. Needleman, and K. Randall, Developing a Taxonomy of Behavior Change Techniques for Environmental Protection, in Proceedings of the First U. S. Conference on Municipal Solid Waste Management: Solutions for the 90s, Vol. III, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D. C., pp. 1261-1285, June 13-16, 1990.

E. S. Geller, Solving Environmental Problems: A Behavior Change Perspective, in Psychology and Social Responsibility: Facing Global Challenges, S. Staub and P. Green (eds.), New York University Press, New York, 1992.

D. B. Gray, Ecological Beliefs and Behaviors: Assessment and Change, Greenwood Press, Westport, Connecticut, 1985.

R. D. Katzev and T. R. Johnson, Promoting Energy Conservation: An Analysis of Behavioral Research, Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado, 1987.

P. C. Stern and S. Oskamp, Managing Scarce Environmental Resources, in Handbook of Environmental Psychology, D. Stokols and I. Altman (eds.), Wiley, New York, 1987.

P. C. Stern, Psychological Dimensions of Global Environmental Change, A Review of Psychology, 43, pp. 269-302, 1992.

K. L. Granzin and J. E. Olsen, Characterizing Participants in Activities Protecting the Environment: A Focus on Donating, Recycling, and Conservation Behaviors, Journal of Public Policy and Marketing, 10, pp. 1-27, 1991.

P. B. Everett, the Use of the Reinforcement Procedure to Increase Bus Ridership, Proceedings of the 81st Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, 8, pp. 891-892, 1973.

P. B. Everett, S. C. Hayward, and A. W. Meyers, Effects of a Token Reinforcement Procedure on Bus Ridership, Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 7, pp. 1-9, 1974.

B. C. Deslauriers and P. B. Everett, Effects of Intermittent and Continuous Token Reinforcement on Bus Ridership, Journal of Applied Psychology, 62, pp. 369-375, 1977.

W. Bachman and R. Katzev, the Effects of Non-Contingent Free Bus Tickets and Personal Commitment of Urban Bus Ridership, Transportation Research, 16A, pp. 103-108, 1982.

T. Katzev and W. Bachman, Effects of Deferred Payment and Fare Manipulation of Urban Bus Ridership, Journal of Applied Psychology, 67, pp. 83-88, 1982.

H. E. Jacobs, D. Fairbanks, C. E. Poche, and J. S. Bailey, Multiple Incentives in Encouraging Car Pool Formation on a University Campus, Journal of Applied Behavioral Analysis, 15, pp. 141-149, 1982.

G. Giuliano, K. Hwang, and M. Wachs, Mandatory Trip Reduction in Southern California: First Year Results, unpublished manuscript.

D. Brownstone and T. F. Golob, the Effectiveness of Ridesharing Incentives: Discrete-Choice Models of Commuting in Southern California, Regional Science and Urban Economics, 22, pp. 5-24, 1992.

R. M. Foxx and D. F. Hake, Gasoline Conservation: A Procedure for Measuring and Reducing the Driving of College Students, Journal of Applied Behavioral Analysis, 10, pp. 61-74, 1977.

D. F. Hake and R. M. Foxx, Promoting Gasoline Conservation, Behavioral Modification, 2, pp. 339-368, 1978.

D. A. Reichel and E. S. Geller, Applications of Behavioral Analysis for Conserving Transportation Energy, in Advances in Environmental Psychology, Vol. III: (Energy Conservation: Psychological Perspectives), A. Baum and J. E. Singer (eds.), Erlbaum Associations, Hillsdale, New Jersey, 1981.

J. B. Margolin, M. R. Misch, and M. Stahr, Incentives and Disincentives of Ride Sharing, Transportation Research Records, 673, pp. 7-15, 1978.

R. Booth and R. Waksman, Analysis of Commuter Ridesharing Behavior at Five Urban Sites, Transportation Research Records, 1018, pp. 33-40, 1985.

J. B. Margolin and M. R. Misch, Incentives and Disincentives for Ridesharing: A Behavioral Study, Federal Highway Administration, U. S. Department of Transportation, 1979.

W. R. Hershey and A. J. Hekimian, Measuring the Effectiveness of Personalized Ridesharing Assistance, Transportation Research Records, 914, pp. 14-21, 1983.

E. T. Ferguson, Evaluation of Employer-Sponsored Ridesharing Programs in Southern California, Transportation Research Records, 1280, pp. 59-72, 1990.

A. J. Hekimian and W. R. Hersey, Personalized Approach for Ridesharing Projects: Experience of Share-A-Ride in Silver Spring, Maryland, Transportation Research Records, 823, pp. 59-63, 1981.

E. Kadesh and L. Elder, Guaranteed Ride Home: An Insurance Program for HOV Users, Transportation Research Records, 1212, pp. 72-75, 1989.

M. A. Winslow, Methods for Reducing Private Automobile Use, Master's Practicum, School of Natural Resources and Environment, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1991.

C. D. Angell and J. Ercolano, Southwestern Connecticut Commuter Transportation Study: An Analysis of Commuter Attitudes and Practices, paper presented at the Transportation Research Board 70th Annual Meeting, Washington, D. C., 1991.

P. W. Bonswall, A. H. Spencer, and W. S. Tang, What Makes a Car Sharer? Transportation, 12, pp. 117-145, 1984.

Sierra Research, Inc., Analysis of the Emission Benefits from Transportation Control Measures in San Diego County, report prepared for the County of San Diego Air Pollution Control District, November 1990.

F. J. Wegmann and S. R. Stokey, Impact of Flextime Work Schedules on an Employer-Based Ridesharing Program, Transportation Research Records, 914, pp. 9-13, 1983.

A. Modarres, Evaluating Employer-Based Transportation Demand Management Programs, Transportation Research—A, 27A, pp. 291-297, 1993.

M. Wachs, Policy Implications of Recent Behavioral Research in Transportation Demand Management, Journal of Planning Literature, 5, pp. 333-341, 1991.

R. Dowling, D. Feltham, and W. Wycko, Factors Affecting TDM Program Effectiveness at Six San Francisco Medical Institutions, paper presented at the Transportation Research Board 70th Annual Meeting, Washington, D. C., 1991.

M. Surber, D. Shoup, and M. Wachs, Effects of Ending Employer-Paid Parking for Solo Drivers, Transportation Research Records, 957, pp. 67-76, 1984.

D. O. Nelson, Promotional Strategies for Ridesharing: Market Study for a Congested Major Urban Link, Transportation Research Records, 823, pp. 8-14, 1981.

J. L. Aho, Ridesharing: Carpools and Vanpools, Transportation Working Paper 32, Southeast Michigan Council of Governments, Detroit, Michigan, 1977.

S. Rosenbloom, Peak Period Traffic Congestion: A State-of-the-Art Analysis and Evaluation of Effective Solutions, in Urban Transportation Perspectives and Prospects, H. S. Levinson and R. A. Weant (eds.), Eno Foundation for Transportation, Inc., Connecticut, pp. 157-168, 1982.

U. S. Department of Transportation, Evaluation of Carpool Demonstration Projects, 1978.

R. Katzev, the Impact of Commitment in Promoting Consumer Energy Conservation, in Consumer Behavior and Energy Policy: An International Perspective, E. Monnier, G. Gaskell, P. Ester, B. Joerges, B. Lapillonne, C. Midden, and L. Puiseux (eds.), Praeger, New York, 1986.

P. C. Stern and E. Aronson (eds.), Energy Use: The Human Dimension, Freeman, New York, 1984.

R. Fazio and M. Zanna, Direct Experience and Attitude-Behavior Consistency, Advancement in Experimental Social Psychology, 14, pp. 161-202, 1981.

M. Monroe, The Effect of Interesting Environmental Stories on Knowledge and Action-Taking Attitudes, doctoral dissertation, School of Natural Resources and Environment, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1991.

M. Monroe and S. Kaplan, When Words Speak Louder Than Actions: Environmental Problem Solving in the Classroom, Journal of Environmental Education, 19, pp. 38-41, 1988.

R. F. Teal, Carpooling: Who, How, and Why, Transportation Research A, 21, pp. 203-214, 1987.

W. Brog, Psychological Determinants of User Behavior, in Report of the 34th Round Table on Transportation Economics, Paris, European Conference of Ministers of Transport (ECMT), 1977, 1976.

S. C. Hayward and P. B. Everett, A Failure of Response Cost Feedback to Modify Car Driving Behavior, paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Midwestern Association of Behavioral Analysis, Chicago, Illinois, May 1-4, 1976.

N. Oppenheim, Carpooling: Problems and Potentials, Traffic Quarterly, 33, pp. 253-262, 1979.

A. D. Horowitz and J. N. Sheth, Ride Sharing to Work: An Attitudinal Analysis, Transportation Research Records, 637, pp. 1-8, 1978.

A. Tversky and D. Kahneman, Rational Choice and the Framing of Decisions, Journal of Business, 59(Part 2), pp. 251-277, 1982.

I. P. Levin and M. J. Gray, Evaluation of Interpersonal Influences in the Formation and Promotion of Carpools, Transportation Research Records, 724, pp. 35-39, 1979.

J. W. Reich and J. L. Robertson, Reactance and Norm Appeal in Antilittering Messages, Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 9, pp. 91-101, 1979.

S. Brehm and J. W. Brehm, Psychological Reactance: A Theory of Freedom and Control, Academic Press, New York, 1981.