10.2190/SH.5.2.b M562517150825056 2 An Initial View of Self-Help Groups for Japanese Alcoholics: Danshukai in its Historical, Social, and Cultural Contexts 111 152 20100201 20100201 20100201 20100201 M562517150825056.pdf http://baywood.metapress.com/link.asp?target=contribution&id=M562517150825056 2 Richard D. Chenhall Ph.D. Tomofumi Oka Ph.D. University of Melbourne, Australia Sophia University, Japan Danshukai is Japan's largest self-help/mutual-aid group for alcoholics, with approximately 10,000 members nationwide. This article aims to examine Danshukai in the Tokyo area. While leaders of Danshukai in the 1950s were inspired by Alcoholics Anonymous (AA), it was AA's general structure and not its therapeutic content that was translated into the Japanese context. For therapeutic content Danshukai turned to existing cultural understandings within Japanese society, and made the "meeting" pivotal to recovery. In Danshukai, alcoholics manage their dependence by changing their social routines by "belonging" to Danshukai and attending meetings, paying membership fees, and sharing stories about the damaging effects of alcohol among members. Recovery is not an individual journey, but is inclusive of the family in the therapeutic process. Danshukai also provides service to help alcoholics in need who are outside their membership. At the individual level, service is more local, being linked to supporting the family through recovery.

AA (Alcoholics Anonymous). (1981). Understanding anonymity. New York: Alcoholics Anonymous World Services, Inc.

AAJSO. (1995). Ikutabimono deaiwo kasanete: AA Nihon 20 nen no ayumi [After many meetings: the 20-year history of AA Japan]. Tokyo: Author.

AAJSO. (2006). AA fact file [Japanese]. Tokyo: Author.

AAJSO. (2007). 2007 membership survey [Japanese]. Tokyo: Author.

AA Nihonshibu Danshu-tomo-no-kai [AA's Japanese "branch": Danshu-tomo-no-kai]. (1953, October 1). Kinshu Shimbun, 330, 4.

AA Nihonshibu Danshu-tomo-no-kai. (1954, February 1). Kinshu Shimbun, 334, 4.

Atoda, N., Amenomori, T., & Ohta, M. (1998). The scale of the Japanese nonprofit sector. In T. Yamamoto (Ed.), The nonprofit sector in Japan. Manchester: Manchester University Press.

Benedict, R. (1954). The chrysanthemum and the sword: Patterns of Japanese culture. Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle.

Bestor, T. C. (1989). Neighborhood Tokyo. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

Borkman, T. (1999). Understanding self-help/mutual aid: Experiential learning in the commons. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.

Borkman, T. (2008) The Twelve-Step Recovery Model of AA: A voluntary mutual help association. In M. Galanter & L. A. Kaskutas (Eds.), Recent developments in alcoholism, Vol. 18: Research on Alcoholics Anonymous and spirituality in addiction recovery (pp. 9-35). New York: Springer Science and Business Media.

Borovory, A. (2005). The too-good wife: Alcohol, dependency, and the politics of nurturance in postwar Japan. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Burgess-limerick, T., & Burgess-limerick, R. (1998). Conversational interviews and multiple-case research in psychology, Australian Journal of Psychology, 50(2), 63-70.

Chikai-no-kotoba. (1959). Danshu-no-tomo, 17, 1.

Dai 16 kai zenkoku taikai. (1980). Zendanren, 23, 1.

Danshu Gojokai: Tōkin no shin kokoromi [Danshu Gojokai: A new attempt at Tokyo Temperance Group]. (1958, May 1). Kinshu Shimbun, 378.

Danshu-no-chikai. (1961). Shimbun Danshu, 1, 1. (Reprinted from Kōchi Arukōru Mondai Kenkyūsho (Ed.), (1987). Kanzen fukkokuban Shimbun Danshu. Kōchi: Editor.)

Danshu-tetsugen. (1962). Shimbun Danshu, 5, 1.

Danshu-tomo-no-kai. (1973). Danshu wa tadashii yarikatade: Anatano danshu nyumon [Take the right way to abstinence: An introduction for you to abstinence]. Tokyo: Author.

"Danshu-tomo-no-kai" dokuritsu e [Danshu-tomo-no-kai becoming independent]. (1958). Danshu-no-tomo, 1, 1.

Danshu undō shōshi [A short history of abstinence movements]. (1967, December 1). Kinshu Shimbun, 497, 2.

Davies, R. J., & Ikeno, O. (2002). The Japanese mind: Understanding contemporary Japanese culture. Tokyo: Tuttle Publishing.

Doi, T. (1973). The anatomy of dependence. New York: Kodansha International.

Doi, A. (1987). A longitudinal follow-up study of 133 alcoholic members of a Danshukai. Psychiatria et Neurologia Japonica, 89(6), 407-431.

Doi, A., Yoshida, S., & Etō, M. (1979). Kadai shūdan toshiteno Danshukai: Tokushimaken Danshukai deno keiken [Danshukai as task groups]. Psychiatria et neurologia Japonica, 81(3), 224-229.

Dorn, E. A. (2003). "For God, home and country": The Women's Christian Temperance Union and reform efforts in Meiji Japan. Unpublished doctorial dissertation, University of Hawaii, Hawaii.

Eguchi, S. (1991). Between folk concepts of illness and psychiatric diagnosis: Kitsune-tsuki (fox possession) in a mountain village in Japan. Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry, 15, 421-451.

Enomoto, M. (1985). Danshukai to AA: Hikakubunka Seishinigakuteki Kōsatsu [Danshukai and AA: A cross-cultural psychiatric discussion] Journal of Studies on Alcoholism Treatment, 2(2), 157-165.

Fetters, M. D. (1995). Nemawashi essential for conducting research in Japan. Social Science & Medicine, 41(3), 375-381.

Fujii, K. (1986). Watashi to Danshukai [Danshukai and I]. Journal of Studies on Alcoholism Treatment, 3(4), 289-293.

Fukuda, Y. (2003). Experiences in the teetotal meeting (Danshukai: Japanese self help group of alcoholics) and recovery process of alcoholism [sic] [Japanese]. Hiroshima Bunkyo Joshi Daigaku Kiyo, 38, 155-164.

Geshi, T. (1972). Danshukai ni tsuite [About Danshukai]. Kyoiku to igaku, 20(2), 38-45.

Geshi, T. (1987). "Shimbun Danshu" fukkokuban kankōni saishite. In Kōchi Arukōru Mondai Kenkyūsho (Ed.), Kanzen fukkokuban Shimbun Danshu (pp. 3-10). Kōchi: Editor.

Hakutsuru Sake Brewing Co., Ltd. (2008). Kagamibiraki. Retrieved July 12, 2008, from <a target="_blank" href='http://www.hakutsuru-sake.com/content/055.html'>http://www.hakutsuru-sake.com/content/055.html</a>

Hall, E. T., & Hall, M. R. (1990). Hidden differences: Doing business with the Japanese. New York: Anchor Books.

Hamabata, M. M. (1986). Ethnographic boundaries: Culture, class and sexuality in Tokyo, Qualitative Sociology, 9(4), 351-371.

Hendry, J. (1987). Understanding Japanese society. London: Croom Helm.

Higuchi, S., Matsushita, S., Maesato, H., & Osaki, Y. (2007). Japan: Alcohol today. Addiction, 102, 1849-1862.

Hirano, K. (1995). Serufu herupu gurupu niyoru kaifuku [Recovery through self-help groups]. Tokyo: Kawashiwa shoten.

Hirogaru AA undō [Spreading AA movements] (1953, January 1). Kinshu Shimbun, 322, 3.

Hirose, Y., Kato, H., & Suda, K. (1988). Work of Danshukai based on regional trait [sic]: An experience in Hida area of Gifu Prefecture [Japanese]. Japanese Journal of Health and Human Ecology, 54(5), 234-239.

Hirose, Y., Kurokawa, T., & Kato, H. (1986). Arukōrushō komyuniti kea ni tsuite: Gifuken Hida chihō no shōgurūpu Danshukai katsudō [Community care for alcoholism: Danshuka's small group activities in the Hida area of Gifu Prefecture]. Journal of Studies on Alcoholism Treatment, 3(2), 131-137.

Horton, H. M. (1993). Renga unbound: Performative aspects of Japanese linked verse. Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, 53(2), 443-512.

Horiuchi, T. (2000, June 16). Healing relationships bloom in "renga." Japan Times. Retrieved July 12, 2008, from http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/fl20000616a1.html <a target="_blank" href='http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/fl20000616a1.html'>http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/fl20000616a1.html</a>

Humphreys, K. (2004). Circles of recovery: Self-help organizations for addictions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Ichimaru, T. (1987). Recovering processes of alcoholics (1) [Japanese]. Bulletin of the Faculty of Education, Hiroshima University. Part 1, Pedagogy & Psychology, 36, 129-139.

Ichimaru, T. (1988). Recovering processes of alcoholics (2) [Japanese]. Bulletin of the Faculty of Education, Hiroshima University. Part 1, Pedagogy & Psychology, 37, 197-206.

Inoue, S., Ino, A., Ōgoshi, T., Okumiya, Y., Hanai, S., Kangokenkyū-gurūpu, et al. (1977). Arukōru izon to watashitachi no jissen: Nyūin iryō to Danshukai [Alcoholism and our practice: Hospitalisation treatment and Danshukai]. Seishin Iryo, 6, 114-149.

Japan Temperance Union. (1970). Nihon kinshu undo no 80 nen [The 80-year history of Japan Temperance Movements] Tokyo: Author.

Japan Temperance Union. (2008). Nihon kinshu domei eno kanyu moshikomi. Retrieved July 21, 2008, from <a target="_blank" href='http://nippon_kinshu_doumei.at.infoseek.co.jp/a-join-01.html'>http://nippon_kinshu_doumei.at.infoseek.co.jp/a-join-01.html</a>

Kasai, K. (2007). Danshu ga tsukuridasu kyodosei [Collectivity created through abstinence]. Tokyo: Sekai shissha.

Katô, J. (1995). Nemoto Sho den [A biography of Sho Nemoto]. Sendai: Author.

Kato, K. (2000). Necktie-Alcoholics: Cultural forces and Japanese Alcoholism. Unpublished master's thesis, Washington State University, Washington.

Kato, E. (2004). The tea ceremony and women's empowerment in modern Japan: Bodies re-presenting the past. London; Routledge.

Kato, Y., Takeda, F., Miyake, T., Yokoyama, E., & Ohida, T. (2004). Depression and psychosocial factors in alcoholic members of teetotal societies [Japanese]. Japanese Journal of Public Health, 51(8), 603-611.

Kinshu shisetsu daiichijin [The first temperance envoy]. (1952, January 1). Kinshu Shimbun, 316, 1.

Kiuchi, K., Kuruma, T., Hayakawa, K., Furuyama, S., Teramoto, K., & Nakagawa, M. (1957, May 25). Nihon Kinshu Domei Suibi no gen'in wo shirabete domei kaiin shoken no kii ni uttaemasu [We are appealing to you, members of the Temperance Union. after researching the reasons why the Temperance Union is declining]. (Available from Japan Temperance Union, 1-8-2, Nishikubo, Musashino City, Tokyo, 180-0013)

Kobayashi, T. (1990). Matsumura Harushige: Danshukai shodai kaicho [Harushige Matsumura: The first president of Danshukai]. Tokyo: ASK.

Kobayashi, T. (2000). Jijo gurūpu 1: Danshukai [Self-help groups: 1. Danshukai]. Human Mind, 91, 48-52.

Koshio, M. (2002). Nihon hatsu no kinshu shisetu: Otsuji Kimiko [The first Japanese temperance envoy: Kimiko Ōtsuji]. Unpublished report on Otsuji Kimiko's speech given on September 28, 2002, in Musashino City, Tokyo. (Available from Japan Temperance Union, 1-8-2, Nishikubo, Musashino City, Tokyo, 180-0013).

Kuruma, T. (1957, December 18). Riji kakui: Hokoku narabini konsei [To trustees: Report and request]. (Available from Japan Temperance Union, 1-8-2, Nishikubo, Musashino City, Tokyo, 180-0013).

Lebra, T. S. (1976). Japanese patterns of behavior. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii.

Matsushita, T. (1997). Differentiation and integration of self-helping group [sic]: Case study of Aoba Resigning Group in Miyagi Prefecture [Japanese]. Bulletin of Kyoto University of Education. Ser. A, Education, Social Sciences, Literature and Arts, 90, 213-223.

Mitsubishi Corporation. (1988). Tatemae and honne: Distinguishing between good form and real intention in Japanese business culture. New York: The Free Press.

Miyasato, K., Ushimi, Y., & Sano, H. (1991). Arukōru, yakubutu izonshōsha no jijo katudō [Self-help activities of alcoholics and drug addicts]. Japanese Journal of Social Psychiatry, 14(2), 127-134.

Muraoka, H. (1994). Alkōru izonshō: A.A., Danshukai [Alcoholism: AA and Danshukai]. Japanese Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 23(3), 289-294.

Nakamoto, S. (2007). Danshukai no genjō to kadai: Naiteki keiken wo toshite [The present situations and issues of Danshukai: Through personal experience]. Doshisha Policy & Management Review, 9(2), 161-171.

Nakamura, M. (1982). Arukorusho chiryo dokuhon: Danshukai to AA no chiryo mekanizumu [A handbook of alcoholism therapy: Therapeutic Mechanism of Danshukai and AA]. Tokyo: Seiwa.

Nakamura, M., Tono, T., & Shimoda, K. (1975). Danshukai no shakai seishin igakuteki kenkyū sono 1 [A socio-psychiatric study on Danshukai, part 1]. Clinical Psychiatry; Seishin Igaku, 17(9), 999-1006.

Nakamura, H., & Wiener, P. P. (1964). Ways of thinking of Eastern peoples: India, China, Tibet, Japan. Honolulu, Hawaii: University Press of Hawaii.

Nakata, Y. (2005). Danshu bunka no minzokuteki sai kenkyū [A study on ethnic differences of abstinence culture]. Humanitas, 30, 69-82.

Noda, T., Imamichi, H., Kawata, A., Hirano, K., Ando, T., Iwata, Y., et al. (2001). Long-term outcome of 306 males with alcoholism. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 55, 579-586.

Ochi, M., Sakai, Y., & Takao, R. (2007). The process and characteristic of "hitting the bottom" experience for alcoholic patients participating in Danshukai [Japanese]. Nursing Journal of Kagawa University, 11(1), 57-64.

Ohara, K., & Takagi, M. (1972). A survey of the members of the Kochiken-Danshushinseikai [Japanese]. Clinical psychiatry; Seishin igaku, 14(9), 861-865.

Ōhashi, K. (1970). Kōchishi ni okeru shugaisha no ichikenkyu: Kōchi-shi Danshukai no rei wo tōshite [Alcoholics in Kōchi City: A study of cases in the Kōshi-shi Danshukai]. Meiji Gakuin Ronsô, 165, 61-78.

Ōhashi, K. & Yoshikane, H. (1979). Danshukai kaiin wo toshite mita arukōru izonshōsha no inshu kōdō to danshu doryoku [Alcholics' drinking behaviour and attempts at abstinence: A survey of Danshukai members]. Meiji Gakuin Ronso, 273, 1-28.

Oka, T. (1999). Serufu herupu gurupu: Wakachiai, hirotidachi, tokihanachi [Self-help groups: Sharing, independence and emancipation]. Tokyo: Seiwa.

Oka, T., & Chenhall, R. (2008, July). Research on self-help organisations in Japan: Working with a sense of duty (giri). Paper presented at ISTR 8th International Conference, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.

Oka, T., Kobayashi, T., Tachiki, T., Takahashi, H., Sugie, M., & Hagiyama, K. (2008). Tēma "nakama ishiki" to "kaiin ishiki" wo kangaeru: Danshukai ga yori hatten surutameni [Considering "fellow-feeling" and "member-feeling" to develop Danshukai] Kagaribi, 143, 7.

Okada, Y. (2006). Consciousness of abstinence to [sic] alcoholics with long-term abstinence experience [Japanese]. Japanese Journal of Nursing Research, 29(2), 73-79.

Ōmori, I., & Imazu, H. (1979). A survey of Danshukai (similar to Alcoholics Anonymous in U.S.A. [sic]) throughout Japan [Japanese]. Journal of Transportation Medicine, 33(4), 264-271.

Pekkanen, R. (2006). Japan's dual civil society: Members without advocates. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

Rappaport, J. (1993). Narrative studies, personal stories, and identity transformation in the mutual help context. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 29, 239-256.

Renga. (2008). Poets.org from the Academy of American Poets. Retrieved July 12, 2008, from <a target="_blank" href='http://www.poets.org/viewmedia.php/prmMID/5788'>http://www.poets.org/viewmedia.php/prmMID/5788</a>

Russell, J. G. (1989). Anxiety disorders in Japan: The Japanese literature on shinkeishitsu and taijenkyōfushō. Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry, 13, 391-403.

Sabu Gurūpu Shinguru (n.d.). No. 13. Taikendanshu [Collection of Experience Stories]. Kobe: Author.

Saeki, S., & Craig, T. (1985). The autobiography in Japan, Journal of Japanese Studies, 11(2), 357-368.

Saito, S., & Hada, A. (1983). Danshu dantai no genkyō [The state of abstinence organisations]. Japanese Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 12(12), 1511-1516.

Sakai, Y., Ochi, M., & Takao, R. (2006). A characteristic of the process that a person of alcoholism reaching recovery: The focus is appropriated to "Bottom experience," "Occasion of the abstinence," and "Support of the abstinence." [sic] [Japanese]. Japanese Journal of Study in Addiction Nursing, 3(1), 62-66.

Sake ni nayamu tomo yo kitare [Friends suffering from alcoholism, join us]. (1953, September 1). Kinshu Shimbun, 329, 3.

Sato, T., Karasumi, A., Ogino, S., & Washiyama, J. (1973). Follow-up study of alcoholism: In point of Danshukai [Japanese]. Clinical Psychiatry; Seishin Igaku, 15(11), 1167-1176.

Schwartz, F, (2002). Civil society in Japan reconsidered, Japanese Journal of Political Science, 3 (2), 195-215.

Shimizu, S. (1978). Danshukai katsudō to danshuritsu [Danshukai's activities and abstinence rate]. Nihon Toshi Igaku Kaishi 10, 71-73.

Shimizu, S. (1979). Wagakuni ni okeru inshu to danshu [Drinking and abstinence in Japan]. In S. Endo (Ed.), Rinsho seishin igaku: Saikin no topikkusu 2. Tokyo: Seiwa.

Shimizu, S. (1984). "Alcoholic social system" reconsidered: Drinking culture and drinking behaviors in Japan [Japanese]. Osaka Shiritsu Daigaku Seikatsu Kagakubu Kiyô, 32, 357-373.

Shimizu, S. (1986). Tokumeisei to soshiki bōei: Danshukai no uchi to soto [Anonymity and organisational protection: Inside and outside Danshukai]. Journal of Studies on Alcoholism Treatment, 3(4), 283-288.

Shimizu, S. (2002). Sakenomi no shakaigaku [Sociology of drinkers]. Tokyo: Shinchosha.

Shimmitsu, S. (2007). Drinking norms in Japan: An analysis of strategies to "Be a normal drinker" [Japanese]. The Annual Review of Health and Medical Sociology, 18(2), 95-107.

Shinmitsu, S. (2002). Pathway to abstinence: A study on the process of changing awareness in alcoholics [Japanese]. Japanese Journal of Nursing Research, 35(3), 239-249.

Shinohe, T. (2001). Wagakuni no Danshukai katsudō to arukōru iryō seisaku ni kansuru jakkan no kōsatsu [Some thoughts on the activities of Danshukai and alcohol-related medical policies in Japan]. Kazoku Kino Kenkyusho Kenkyu Kiyo, 5, 66-71.

Singleton, J. (Eds.). (1998). Learning in likely places: Varieties of apprenticeship in Japan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Smith, S. R. (1988). Drinking and sobriety in Japan. Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Dissertation Services.

Smith, S. R. (1998). A good old boy into alcoholic: Danshukai and learning a new drinking role in Japan. In J. Singelton (Ed.), Education in likely places: Apprentices and other learners in Japan (pp. 286-303). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Spradley, J. P. (1980). Participant observation. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Sugita, T., Suzuki, Y., Suzuki, S., Funakoshi, A., Ohara, K., Hattori, S., et al. (1985). Survey on the actual condition of ex-alcoholics: by using a questionnaire with the members of "Danshukai" in Shizuoka Prefecture [Japanese]. Japanese Journal of Alcohol and Drug Dependence, 20(3), 250-262.

Sugiyama, T., Tanioka, T., Ueno, Katayama, H., & Ochi, M. (2007). Survey on process of reaching total abstinence in the self-help group members for total abstinence [Japanese]. Journal of Nursing Investigation, 6(2), 83-88.

Suwaki, H. (1979). Naikan and Danshukai for the treatment of Japanese alcoholic patients. British Journal of Addiction, 74, 15-19.

Takahashi, S., Horii, S., Fujimoto, A., Suwaki, H., & Nishii, Y. (1981). A survey of Danshukai members in Okayama Prefectrure [Japanese]. Okayama Igakukai Zasshi, 93(7-8), 729-738.

Tanaka-Matsumi, J. (1979). Taijin Kyofusho: Diagnostic and cultural issues in Japanese psychiatry. Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry, 3(3), 231-245.

Tokyo Danshu Shinseikai. (2007). Katsudo no gaiyo [Outline of activities]. Unpublished report.

Tokyo Danshu Shinseikai. (2008). Tokyo Danshu Shinseikai 55 nenhi [The 55-year history of Tokyo Danshu Shinseikai]. Tokyo: Author.

Tsujimoto, S. (1983). Danshukai. Journal of Therapy, 65(5), 1056-1060.

Underwood, A. C. (2007). Shintoism: The indigenous religion of Japan. Alcester, Warwickshire: Read Books.

Yamamuro, B. (n.d.) Furoku: Danshukai no hottan [The origin of Danshukai]. In B. Yamamuro. Shubo-undo no sakuransha, daigishi, Yamanaka Goro kun wo kokuhatsushi sokuji no mosei to zensho towo yokyu suru. (Available from Japan Temperance Union, 1-8-2, Nishikubo, Musashino City, Tokyo, 180-0013).

Yatsuke, R. (2006). Men, women, and temperance in Meiji Japan: Engendering WCTU activism from a transnational perspective. The Japanese Journal of American Studies, 17, 91-111.

Zendanren [Zennihon Danshu Renmei]. (2006). Yakushin suru Zendanren. Tokyo: Author.

Zendanren [Zennihon Danshu Renmei]. (2008a). 2008 nendo zenkoku Danshukai genkyoc hosa kekka [The result of a national survey of Danshukai in fiscal 2008]. Unpublished report.

Zendanren [Zennihon Danshu Renmei]. (2008b). Yakushin suru Zendanren. Tokyo: Author.