10.2190/WR.16.1.g V53Q8678222NK050 7 Why Employment Discrimination Matters: Well-Being and the Queer Employee 107 128 20120810 20120810 20120810 20120810 V53Q8678222NK050.pdf http://baywood.metapress.com/link.asp?target=contribution&id=V53Q8678222NK050 1 Trevor G. Gates College at Brockport, State University of New York Queer people experience poor well-being in many workplaces, yet employment non-discrimination legislation providing comprehensive federal protection from employment discrimination based upon sexual orientation has failed to materialize over the last three decades. Current proposals for a federal Employment Non-Discrimination Act (ENDA) do not fully protect lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) workers, especially in states that already have better protections. This conceptual article considers the well-being of queer employees within the context of human rights, the impact of historic queer employment discrimination cases, and the impact of historic legislative action. Current strategies for protecting queer employees at the federal level have failed. Suggestions for creating change in the workplace will be explored.

Adamczyk, A., & Pitt, C. 2009. Shaping attitudes about homosexuality: The role of religion and cultural context. Social Science Research, 38: 338-351.

Akabas, S. H. 1993. Introduction. In P. A. Kurzman & S. H. Akabas (Eds.), Work and well-being: The occupational social work advantage: xvii-xxiv. Washington, DC: NASW Press.

Akabas, S. H., & Kurzman, P. A. 2005. Work and the workplace: A resource for innovative policy and practice. New York: Columbia University Press.

Badgett, M. V. L. 1995. The wage effects of sexual orientation discrimination. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 48: 726-739.

Badgett, M. V. L., Lau, H., Sears, B., & Ho, D. 2007. Bias in the workplace: Consistent evidence of sexual orientation and gender identity discrimination. Los Angeles: The Williams Institute.

Barron, L. G. 2010. Promoting the underlying principle of acceptance: The effectiveness of sexual orientation employment antidiscrimination legislation. Journal of Workplace Rights, 14: 251-268.

Barron, L. G., & Hebl, M. R. 2010. Reducing "acceptable" stigmatization through legislation. Social Issues and Policy Review, 4: 1-30.

Bates, J., & Thompson, N. 2007. Workplace well-being: An occupational social work approach. Illness, Crisis, and Loss, 15: 273-284.

Berry, P. A. 2005. Foreword. In S. H. Akabas & P. A. Kurzman (Eds.), Work and the workplace: A resource for innovative policy and practice: ix-xiv. New York: Columbia University Press.

Blandford, J. M. 2003. The nexus of sexual orientation and gender in the determination of earnings. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 56: 622-642.

Bowers v. Hardwick. 1986. 478 U. S. 186.

Brodsky, C. M. 1976. The harassed worker. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.

Burke, P. J. 1991. Identity processes and social stress. American Sociological Review, 56: 836-849.

Burn, S. M. 2000. Heterosexuals' use of "fag" and "queer" to deride one another: A contributor to heterosexism and stigma. Journal of Homosexuality, 40: 1-11.

Chapman, T. E. 2007. Constructing the moral landscape through antidiscrimination law: Discourse, debate, and dialogue of sexual citizenship in three Florida communities. Retrieved from <a target="_blank" href='http://etd.lib.fsu.edu/theses/available/etd-08242007-210618/unrestricted/tec_dissertation.pdf'>http://etd.lib.fsu.edu/theses/available/etd-08242007-210618/unrestricted/tec_dissertation.pdf</a>

Chauncey, G. 2004. What gay studies taught the court: The historians' amicus brief in Lawrence v. Texas. GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies, 10: 509-538.

Clain, S., & Leppel, K. 2001. An investigation into sexual orientation discrimination as an explanation for wage differences. Applied Economics, 33: 37-47.

Croteau, J. M., & Lark, J. S. 2009. On being lesbian, gay, or bisexual in student affairs: A national survey of experiences on the job. NASPA Journal, 46: 189-197.

Croteau, J. M., & von Destinon, M. 1994. A national survey of job search experiences of lesbian, gay, and bisexual student affairs professionals. Journal of College Student Development, 35: 40-45.

Danna, K., & Griffin, R. W. 1999. Health and well-being in the workplace: A review and synthesis of the literature. Journal of Management, 25: 357-384.

Day, N. E., & Schoenrade, P. 2000. The relationship among reported disclosure of sexual orientation, anti-discrimination policies, top management support and work attitudes of gay and lesbian employees. Personnel Review, 29: 346-363.

De Dreu, C. K. W. D., Dierendonck, D. v., & Dijkstra, M. T. M. 2004. Conflict at work and individual well-being. International Journal of Conflict Management, 15: 6-26.

D'Emilio, J. 1998. Sexual politics, sexual communities (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Desantis v. Pacific Telephone and Telegraph Company. 1979. U. S. 608 F.2d 327.

Diener, E. 1984. Subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin, 95: 542-575.

Diener, E., & Lucas, R. E. 1999. Personality and subjective well-being. In D. Kahneman, E. Diener, & N. Schwarz (Eds.), Well-being: The foundations of hedonistic psychology: 213-219. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

Diener, E., Sapyta, J. J., & Suh, E. (1998). Subjective well-being is essential to wellbeing. Psychological Inquiry, 9: 33-37.

Diener, E., Suh, E. M., Lucas, R. E., & Smith, H. L. 1999. Subjective well-being: Three decades of progress. Psychological Bulletin, 25: 273-302.

Dimauro, D. 2001. Regulation: Sexual behavior. In N. J. Smelser & P. B. Baltes (Eds.), International encyclopedia of the social and behavioral sciences: 12979-12984. New York: Elsevier.

Donaldson-Feilder, E., & Bond, F. W. (2004). The relative importance of psychological acceptance and emotional intelligence to workplace well-being. British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 32: 187-203.

Driscoll, J. M., Kelley, F. A., & Fassinger, R. E. 1996. Lesbian identity and disclosure in the workplace: Relation to occupational stress and satisfaction. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 48: 229-242.

Drydakis, N. 2009. Sexual orientation discrimination in the labor markets. Labour Economics, 16: 364-372.

Eartman, M. M. 2001. Sexual orientation and the law. In N. J. Smelser & P. B. Baltes (Eds.), International encyclopedia of the social and behavioral sciences: 13991-13995. New York: Elsevier.

Eisenberger, R., Huntington, R., Hutchison, S., & Sowa, D. 1986. Perceived organizational support. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71: 500-507.

Ekeberg, E., & Tumber, R. 2004. Sexuality and transgender identity issues in employment. Georgetown Journal of Gender and the Law, 5: 387-404.

Evans, O., & Steptoe, A. 2002. The contribution of gender-role orientation, work factors and home stressors to psychological well-being and sickness absence in male- and female-dominated occupational groups. Social Science and Medicine, 54: 481-492.

Faley, R. H., Knapp, D. E., Kustis, G. A., & Dubois, C. L. Z. 1999. Estimating the organizational costs of sexual harassment: The case of the U. S. army. Journal of Business and Psychology, 13: 461-484.

Forman, T. A. 2003. The social psychological costs of racial segmentation in the workplace: A study of African Americans' well-being. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44: 332-352.

Goffman, E. 1963. Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity. New York: Simon & Schuster.

Griffith, K. H., & Hebl, M. R. 2002. The disclosure dilemma for gay men and lesbians: "Coming out" at work. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87: 1191-1199.

Hall, M. 1986. The lesbian corporate experience. Journal of Homosexuality, 12: 59-74.

Helliwell, J. F., & Putnam, R. D. 2005. Good work: Its nature, its nurture. In F. A. Huppert, N. Baylis, & B. Keverne (Eds.), The science of well-being: 435-459. New York: Oxford University Press.

Herek, G. M. 2004. Beyond "homophobia": Thinking about sexual prejudice and stigma in the twenty-first century. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 1(2): 6-24.

Holloway v. Arthur Andersen and Company. 1977. U. S. 566 F. 2d 659.

Holt, K. W. 1997. Re-evaluating Holloway: Title VII, equal protection, and the evolution of a transgender jurisprudence. Temple Law Review, 70: 283-319.

Hudson, W. W., & Ricketts, W. A. 1980. A strategy for the measurement of homophobia. Journal of Homosexuality, 5: 357-371.

Human Rights Campaign [HRC]. 2009. The state of the workplace for lesbians, gay, bisexual and transgender Americans 2007-2008. Retrieved from <a target="_blank" href='http://www.hrc.org/documents/HRC_Foundation_State_of_the_Workplace_2007-2008.pdf'>www.hrc.org/documents/HRC_Foundation_State_of_the_Workplace_2007-2008.pdf</a>

Irwin, J. 1999. The pink ceiling is too low: Workplace experiences of lesbians, gay men, and transgender people. Sydney: Australian Centre for Lesbian and Gay Research.

Irwin, J. 2002. Discrimination against gay men, lesbians, and transgender people working in education. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Social Services, 14(2): 65-77.

Jackson, P. B., & Saunders, T. 2006. Work stress, coping resources, and mental health: A study of America's black elite. In P. L. Perrewe, & D. C. Ganster (Eds.), Employee health, coping, and methodologies: 139-169. New York: Elsevier.

Jackson, P. B., Thoits, P. A., & Taylor, H. F. 1995. Composition of the workplace and psychological well-being: The effects of tokenism on America's black elite. Social Forces, 74: 543-557.

Jang, S. J. 2009. The relationships of flexible work schedules, workplace support, supervisory support, work-life balance, and the well-being of working parents. Journal of Social Service Research, 35(2): 93-104.

Jasinskaja-Lahti, I., Liebkind, K., & Perhoniemi, R. 2007. Perceived ethnic discrimination at work and well-being of immigrants in Finland: The moderating role of employment status and work-specific group-level control beliefs. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 31: 223-242.

Jones, E., Farina, A., Hastorf, A., Markus, H., Miller, D. T., & Scott, R. 1984. Social stigma: The psychology of marked relationships. New York: Freeman.

Kanter, R. M. 1977. Men and women of the corporation. New York: Basic Books.

Kaukiainen, A., Salmivalli, C., Björkqvist, K., Österman, K., Lahtinen, A., Kostamo, A., & Lagerspetz, K. 2001. Overt and covert aggression in work settings in relation to the subjective well-being of employees. Aggressive Behavior, 27: 360-371.

King, E. B., & Cortina, J. M. 2010. The social and economic imperative of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgendered supportive organizational policies. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 3: 69-78.

King, E. B., Hebl, M., George, J., & Matusik, S. 2005. Understanding tokenism: Antecedents and consequences of psychological climate for gender inequity. Journal of Management, 73: 585-608.

Kovach, K. A., & Millspaugh, P. E. 1996. Employment Nondiscrimination Act: On the cutting edge of public policy. Business Horizons, 39(4): 65-74.

Law, C. L., & Hrabal, E. A. 2010. Sexual minorities in the workplace: The status of legal and organizational protection. Retrieved from <a target="_blank" href='http://www.siop.org/tip/April10/05law.aspx'>www.siop.org/tip/April10/05law.aspx</a>

Lawrence v. Texas. 2003. 539 U. S. 558.

Levine, M. P., & Leonard, R. 1984. Discrimination against lesbians in the workforce. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 9: 700-710.

Lewis, N. M. 2009. Mental health in sexual minorities: Recent indicators, trends, and their relationships to place in North America and Europe. Health and Place, 15: 1029-1045.

McDonald, J. L., Ravitch, F. S., & Sumners, P. 2006. Employment discrimination law: Problems, cases, and critical perspectives. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Mearns, K. J., & Reader, T. 2008. Organizational support and safety outcomes: An un-investigated relationship? Safety Science, 46: 388-397.

National Gay and Lesbian Task Force [NGLTF]. 2008. Task force's work to end discrimination against lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender Americans. Retrieved from <a target="_blank" href='http://www.thetaskforce.org/issues/nondiscrimination/timeline'>www.thetaskforce.org/issues/nondiscrimination/timeline</a>

Nelson, D. L., Little, L. M., & Frazier, M. L. 2008. Employee well-being: The heart of positive organizational behavior. In A. Kinder, R. Hughes, & C. L. Cooper (Eds.), Employee well-being support: A workplace resource: 51-60. Chichester, UK: John H. Wiley.

Oncale v. Sundowner Offshore Services. 1998. 523 U. S. 75.

Paetzold, R. L. 1999. Same-sex sexual harassment, revisited: The aftermath of Oncale v. Sundowner Offshore Services, Inc. Employee Rights and Employment Policy Journal, 3: 259-260.

Page, K. 2005. The workplace well-being index. Retrieved from <a target="_blank" href='http://acqol.deakin.edu.au/instruments/Workplace-Wellbeing-Index%20.doc'>http://acqol.deakin.edu.au/instruments/Workplace-Wellbeing-Index%20.doc</a>

Page, K., & Vella-Brodrick, D. 2009. The "what," "why" and "how" of employee wellbeing: A new model. Social Indicators Research, 90: 441-458.

Ragins, B. R., & Cornwell, J. M. 2001. Pink triangles: Antecedents and consequences of perceived workplace discrimination against gay and lesbian employees. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86: 1244-1261.

Rivera, R. R. 1980. Recent developments in sexual preference law. Drake Law Review, 30: 311-346.

Ryff, C. D. 1989. Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57: 1069-1081.

Schultz, V., & Goldsmith, E. 2001. Sexual harassment: Legal perspectives. In N. J. Smelser & P. B. Baltes (Eds.), International encyclopedia of the social and behavioral sciences: 13982-13987. New York: Elsevier.

Shank, M., & Paulson, G. 1996. Perceptual gaps in the American workforce. Journal for Quality and Participation, 19(6): 60-64.

Singletary, S. L. B. 2009. The differential impact of formal and interpersonal discrimination on job performance. Retrieved from <a target="_blank" href='http://scholarship.rice.edu/bitstream/handle/1911/61816/3362407.PDF?sequence=1'>http://scholarship.rice.edu/bitstream/handle/1911/61816/3362407.PDF?sequence=1</a>

Smith, N. G., & Ingram, K. M. 2004. Workplace heterosexism and adjustment among lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals: The role of unsupportive social interactions. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51: 57-67.

Sonnentag, S. 2001. Work, recovery activities, and individual well-being: A diary study. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 6: 196-210.

Spreitzer, G., Sutcliffe, K., Dutton, J., Sonenshein, S., & Grant, A. M. 2005. A socially embedded model of thriving at work. Organization Science, 16: 537-549.

Swim, J. K., Pearson, N. B., & Johnston, K. E. 2007. Daily encounters with heterosexism: A week in the life of lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals. Journal of Homosexuality, 53: 31-48.

United Nations. 1948. Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Retrieved from <a target="_blank" href='http://www.humanrights.com/what-are-human-rights/universal-declaration-of-human-rights.html'>www.humanrights.com/what-are-human-rights/universal-declaration-of-human-rights.html</a>

Ward, J., & Winstanley, D. 2003. The absent presence: Negative space within discourse and the construction of minority sexual identity in the workplace. Human Relations, 56: 1255-1280.

Warr, P. 1990. Decision latitude, job demands, and employee well-being. Work and Stress, 4: 285-294.

Warr, P. 1999a. Causes and correlates of happiness. In D. Kahneman, E. Diener, & N. Schwarz (Eds.), Well-being: The foundations of hedonistic psychology: 353-373. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

Warr, P. 1999b. Well-being and the workplace. In D. Kahneman, E. Diener, & N. Schwarz (Eds.), Well-being: The foundations of hedonistic psychology: 392-412. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

Weischselbaumer, D. 2003. Sexual orientation discrimination in hiring. Labor Economics, 10: 629-642.

White House. 2011. Civil rights. Retrieved from <a target="_blank" href='http://www.whitehouse.gov/issues/civil-rights'>www.whitehouse.gov/issues/civil-rights</a>