10.2190/WR.17.2.e N774056317761053 5 Racialised and Gendered Workplace Discrimination: The Case of Skilled Filipina Immigrants in Melbourne, Australia 191 218 20140630 20140630 20140630 20140630 N774056317761053.pdf http://baywood.metapress.com/link.asp?target=contribution&id=N774056317761053 2 Cirila P. Limpangog Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia This article shows how skilled immigrant Filipinas resist gender and racial prejudices in Australian workplaces. By activating their rights, they reassert their multiple identities as Filipina immigrants, Australian citizens, and skilled workers, although many agonise for a long time before seeking redress. Experiences of discrimination affect them in various ways, ranging from stalled career progression to negative effects on their self-esteem and psychological well-being. For many, workplace prejudices have made them more aware of their cultural difference from the majority population; but for others, their health and esteem have been so dented that they have resigned from their jobs. Looking through the lenses of gender, race, and class intersectionality, this article also explores the ramifications of the stigmatisation of Filipinas as mail-order brides in the workplace, and, to some extent, in Filipino immigrants' social circles.

Acker, J. 1990. Hierarchies, jobs, bodies: A theory of gendered organisations. Gender and Society, 4: 139-158.

Aguilar, F. V. J. 1996. The dialectics of transnational shame and national identity. Philippine Sociological Review, 44: 101-136.

Anthias, F. 2006. Belongings in a globalising and unequal world: Rethinking translocations. In N. Yuval-Davis, K. Kannabirăn, & U. Vieten (Eds.), The situated politics of belonging: 17-31. London: Sage.

Askew, D. A., Schluter, P. J., Dick, M., Régo, P. M., Turner, C., & Wilkinson, D. 2012. Bullying in the Australian medical workforce: Cross-sectional data from an Australian e-cohort study. Australian Health Review, 36: 197-204.

Augoustinos, M., Tuffin, K., & Every, D. 2005. New racism, meritocracy and individualism: Constraining affirmative action in education. Discourse and Society, 16: 315-340.

Australian Human Rights Commission. 2013. Sexual harassment. Retrieved from <a target="_blank" href='https://www.humanrights.gov.au/our-work/sex-discrimination/guides/sexual-harassment'>https://www.humanrights.gov.au/our-work/sex-discrimination/guides/sexual-harassment</a>

Barron, O. 2000. Why workplace bullying and violence are different: Protecting employees from both. Security Journal, 13: 63-72.

Bottomley, G. 1992. From another place: Migration and the politics of culture. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Brah, A. 1996. Cartographics of diaspora: Contesting identities. London: Routledge.

Charlesworth, S., McDonald, P., & Cerise, S. 2011. Naming and claiming sexual harassment in Australia. Australian Journal of Social Issues, 46: 141-161.

Cooke, F. 1986. Australian-Filipino marriages in the 1980s: The myth and reality. Nathan, Australia: Griffith University School of Modern Asian Studies.

Cooke, F., & Western, J. 1988. Filipinas and work: The quest for a fair go: An overview of a study. Brisbane, Australia: University of Queensland Department of Anthropology and Sociology.

Cuban, S. 2008. Home/work: The roles of education, literacy, and learning in the networks and mobility of professional women migrant carers in Cumbria.Ethnography and Education, 3: 81-96.

Davis, K. 2008. Intersectionality as buzzword: A sociology of science perspective on what makes a feminist theory successful. Feminist Theory, 9: 67-85.

Deitch, E. A., Barsky, A., Butz, R. M., Chan, S., Brief, A. P., & Bradley, J. C. 2003. Subtle yet significant: The existence and impact of everyday racial discrimination. Human Relations, 56: 1299-1324.

Dunn, K. 2003. Imagining the Congo: The international relations of identity. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Dunn, K., Loosemore, M., Phua, F., & Ozguc, U. 2011. Everyday ethnic diversity and racism on Australian construction sites. International Journal of Diversity in Organisations, Communities and Nations, 10: 129-147.

Enriquez, V. 1992. From colonial to liberation psychology: The Philippine experience. Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press.

Essed, P. 1991. Understanding everyday racism: An interdisciplinary theory. London: Sage.

Essed, P. 2002. Everyday racism: A new approach to the study of racism. In P. Essed & D. T. Goldberg (Eds.), Race critical theories: Text and context: 176-194. Melbourne, Australia: Blackwell Publishing.

Farrell, G. A., Bobrowski, C., & Bobrowski, P. 2006. Scoping workplace aggression in nursing: Findings from an Australian study. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 55: 778-787.

Fincher, R. 1995. Women, immigration and the state: Issues of difference and social justice. In A. Edwards & S. Magarey (Eds.), Women in a restructuring Australia: Work and welfare: 203-222. Sydney, Australia: Allen and Unwin.

Getachew, G. H. 2012. "Deskilling and disempowerment" of skilled Eritrean and Ethiopian migrant women in the Netherlands. Retrieved from <a target="_blank" href='http://thesis.eur.nl/pub/13052/'>http://thesis.eur.nl/pub/13052/</a>

Glasø, L., Matthiesen, S. B., Nielsen, M. B., & Einarsen, S. 2007. Do targets of workplace bullying portray a general victim personality profile. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 48: 313-319.

Hage, G. 1998. White nation: Fantasies of white supremacy in a multicultural society. Annandale, Australia: Pluto Press.

Hall, S. 2000. Who needs "identity" In P. D. Gay, J. Evans, & P. Redman (Eds.), Identity: A reader: 15-30. London: Sage.

Hawthorne, L. 1997. The question of discrimination: Skilled migrants' access to Australian employment. International Migration, 35: 395-419.

Hawthorne, L. 2002. Qualifications recognition reform for skilled migrants in Australia: Applying competency-based assessment to overseas-qualified nurses. International Migration, 40: 55-91.

Hegney, D., Eley, D., Plank, A., Buikstra, E., & Parker, V. 2006. Workplace violence in Queensland, Australia: The results of a comparative study. International Journal of Nursing Practice, 12: 220-231.

Hegney, D., Plank, A., & Parker, V. 2003. Workplace violence in nursing in Queensland, Australia: A self-reported study. International Journal of Nursing Practice, 9: 261-268.

Ho, C. 2006. Migration as feminisation? Chinese women's experiences of work and family in Australia. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 32: 497-514.

Holt, E. 1996. Writing Filipina-Australian bodies: The discourse of Filipina brides. Philippine Sociological Review, 44: 58-78.

House of Representatives Standing Committee on Education and Employment. 2012. Inquiry into workplace bullying. Retrieved from <a target="_blank" href='http://www.aph.gov.au/parliamentary_business/committees/house_of_representatives_committees-url=ee/bullying/report.htm'>http://www.aph.gov.au/parliamentary_business/committees/house_of_representatives_committees-url=ee/bullying/report.htm</a>

Hutchinson, M., Vickers, M., Jackson, D., & Wilkes, L. 2006. Workplace bullying in nursing: Towards a more critical organisational perspective. Nursing Inquiry, 13: 118-126.

Ilies, R., Hauserman, N., Schwochau, S., & Stibal, J. 2003. Reported incidence rates of work-related sexual harassment in the United States: Using meta-analysis to explain reported rate disparities. Personnel Psychology, 56: 607-631.

Iredale, R. 2005. Gender, immigration policies and accreditation: Valuing the skills of professional women migrants. Geoforum, 36: 155-166.

Jackson, D., Clare, J., & Mannix, J. 2002. Who would want to be a nurse? Violence in the workplace—A factor in recruitment and retention. Journal of Nursing Management, 10: 13-20.

Jackson, R. T., & Flores, E. R. 1989. No Filipinos in Manila. Townsville, Australia: James Cook University Department of Geography.

Jocano, F. L. 1999. Working with Filipinos: A cross-cultural encounter. Quezon City, The Philippines: Punlad Research House.

Kofman, E. 2000. The invisibility of skilled female migrants and gender relations in studies of skilled migration in Europe. International Journal of Population Geography, 6: 45-59.

Kofman, E., & Raghuram, P. 2005. Gender and skilled migrants: Into and beyond the workplace. Geoforum, 36: 149-154.

Larson, A., Gillies, M., Howard, P. J., & Coffin, J. 2007. It's enough to make you sick: The impact of racism on the health of aboriginal Australians. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 31: 322-329.

Lee, D. 2001. "He didn't sexually harass me, as in harassed for sex… . He was just horrible"—Women's definitions of unwanted male sexual conduct at work. Women's Studies International Forum, 24: 25-38.

Lee, D. 2002. Gendered workplace bullying in the restructured UK civil service. Personnel Review, 31: 205-227.

Loosemore, M., & Chau, D. W. 2002. Racial discrimination towards Asian operatives in the Australian construction industry. Construction Management and Economics, 20: 91-102.

Lopez, M. 2000. The origins of multiculturalism in Australian politics. Melbourne, Australia: Melbourne University Press.

Lowe, L. 1996. Immigrant acts. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.

Madison, J., & Minichiello, V. 2000. Recognizing and labelling sex-based and sexual harassment in the health care workplace. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 32: 405-410.

Mapedzahama, V., Rudge, T., West, S., & Perron, A. 2012. Black nurse in white space? Rethinking the in/visibility of race within the Australian nursing workplace. Nursing Inquiry, 19: 153-164.

Martin, J. 1991. Multiculturalism and feminism. In G. Bottomley, M. de Lepervanche, & J. Martin (Eds.), Intersexions: Gender/class/culture/ethnicity: 110-131. Sydney, Australia: Allen and Unwin.

McDonald, P., & Dear, K. 2008. The incidence and patterns of discrimination and harassment affecting working women in Australia. Women's Studies Journal, 22: 37-48.

Meares, C. 2010. A fine balance: Women, work and skilled migration. Women's Studies International Forum, 33: 473-481.

Mellor, D. 2004. The experiences of Vietnamese in Australia: The racist tradition continues. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 30: 631-658.

Office of Women's Policy. 2005. Safe at work? Women's experience of violence in the workplace. Retrieved from <a target="_blank" href='http://www.urcot.org.au/sites/default/files/From%20OWP%20website%2011%20Oct%20SafeatWorkPDF.pdf'>http://www.urcot.org.au/sites/default/files/From%20OWP%20website%2011%20Oct%20SafeatWorkPDF.pdf</a>

Omeri, A., & Atkins, K. 2002. Lived experiences of immigrant nurses in New South Wales, Australia: Searching formeaning. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 39: 495-505.

Pocock, B., Elton, J., Preston, A., Charlesworth, S., MacDonald, F., Baird, M., Cooper, R., & Ellem, B. 2008. The impact of "Work Choices" on women in low paid employment in Australia: A qualitative analysis. Journal of Industrial Relations, 50: 475-488.

Poynting, S., & Noble, G. 2004. Living with racism: The experience and reporting by Arab and Muslim Australians of discrimination, abuse and violence since 11 September 2001. Retrieved from <a target="_blank" href='http://www.stepone.org.au/media/1712/living%20with%20racism.pdf'>http://www.stepone.org.au/media/1712/living%20with%20racism.pdf</a>

Pred, A. R. 2000. Even in Sweden: Racisms, racialised spaces, and the popular geographical imagination. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Purkayastha, B. 2005. Skilled migration and cumulative disadvantage: The case of highly qualified Asian Indian immigrant women in the US. Geoforum, 36: 181-196.

Robinson, K. 1996. Of mail-order brides and "Boys' Own" tales: Representation of Asian Australian marriages. Feminist Review, 52: 53-68.

Roces, M. 2003. Sisterhood is local: The Filipino women in Mount Isa. In N. Piper & M. Roces (Eds.), Wife or worker? Asian women and migration: 73-100. New York: Rowman and Littlefield.

Roffey, B. 1999. Filipina managers and entrepreneurs: What leadership models apply? Asian Studies Review, 23: 375-405.

Roffey, B. 2000. Strategic leadership and management in the Philippines: Dynamics of gender and culture. Labour and Management in Development Journal, 10: 1-31.

Salin, D. 2003. Ways of explaining workplace bullying: A review of enabling, motivating and precipitating structures and processes in the work environment. Human Relations, 56: 1213-1232.

Salin, D., & Hoel, H. 2013. Workplace bullying as a gendered phenomenon. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 28: 235-251.

Saroca, C. 2006. Filipino women, migration, and violence in Australia: Lived reality and media image. Kasarinlan: Philippine Journal of Third World Studies, 21: 75-110.

Simpson, R., & Cohen, C. 2004. Dangerous work: The gendered nature of bullying in the context of higher education. Gender, Work and Organization, 11: 163-186.

Smith, P. K., & Sharp, S. 1994. School bullying: Insights and perspectives. London: Routledge.

Stratton, J. 2006. Two rescues, one history: Everyday racism in Australia. Social Identities: Journal for the Study of Race, Nation and Culture, 12: 657-681.

Swim, J. K., Hyers, L. L., Cohen, L. L., Fitzgerald, D. C., & Bylsma, W. H. 2003. African American college students' experiences with everyday racism: Characteristics of and responses to these incidents. Journal of Black Psychology, 29: 38-67.

Syed, J., & Murray, P. 2009. Combating the English language deficit: The labour market experiences of migrant women in Australia. Human Resource Management Journal, 19: 413-432.

Syed, J., & Pio, E. 2010. Veiled diversity? Workplace experiences of Muslim women in Australia. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 27: 115-137.

Thomas, A., & Kitzinger, C. 1994. "It's just something that happens": The invisibility of sexual harassment in the workplace. Gender, Work and Organization, 1: 151-161.

Tibe-Bonifacio, G. L. A. 2003. Filipino women and their citizenship in Australia: In search of political space. PhD dissertation. Retrieved from <a target="_blank" href='http://ro.uow.edu.au/theses/3109/'>http://ro.uow.edu.au/theses/3109/</a>

Tibe-Bonifacio, G. L. A. 2009. Activism from the margins: Filipino marriage migrants in Australia. Frontiers, 30: 142-168.

Timo, N., Fulop, L., & Ruthjersen, A. 2004. Crisis? What crisis? Management practices and internal violence and workplace bullying in aged care in Australia. Research and Practice in Human Resource Management, 12: 57-89.

United Nations. 2009. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. Retrieved from <a target="_blank" href='http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/'>http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/</a>

Vasta, E. 1991. Gender, class and ethnic relations: The domestic and work experiences of Italian migrant women in Australia. In G. Bottomley, M. de Lepervanche, & J. Martin (Eds.), Intersexions: Gender/class/culture/ethnicity: 159-177. Sydney, Australia: Allen and Unwin.

Workplace Gender Equality Agency. 2013. About the Workplace Gender Equality Act. Retrieved from <a target="_blank" href='http://www.wgea.gov.au/content/about-legislation'>http://www.wgea.gov.au/content/about-legislation</a>

WorkSafe Victoria. n.d. Workplace bullying. Retrieved from <a target="_blank" href='http://www.worksafe.vic.gov.au/safety-and-prevention/health-and-safety-topics/workplace-bullying'>http://www.worksafe.vic.gov.au/safety-and-prevention/health-and-safety-topics/workplace-bullying</a>

Wren, K. 2001. Cultural racism: Something rotten in the State of Denmark? Social and Cultural Geography, 2: 141-162.

Yanick, S. J., & Feagin, J. R. 1998. Double burden: Black women and everyday racism. New York: M. E. Sharpe.

Yeoh, B. S., & Willis, K. 2012. Negotiating "home" and "away": Singaporean professional migrants in China. In D. W. Haines, K. Yamanaka, & S. Yamashita (Eds.), Wind over water: Migration in an East Asian context: 219-228. New York: Berghahn Books.